Robert’s Robert’s Rules Rules
Rob James
A layman’s irreverent guide to parliamentary procedure for nonprofit assemblies.
All professions are conspiracies against the laity.—George Bernard Shaw
Like many folks, I have attended many nonprofit meetings in my day—on benches in the audience, seated at the front table, and holding the microphone as president. “Old Business” is old hat.
Also like many folks, I have had only the foggiest of notions of “parliamentary procedure.” To be sure, I have witnessed its tattered vestiges. I have heard phrases like “come to order,” “point of order,” and “out of order”; made “motions” and “seconds”; and cast nautical‐sounding “ayes” and “nays,” one side or the other of which would then be mysteriously announced to “have it.” I have heard someone say “call the question” or “lay on the table,” impressing the rest of us. I have witnessed secretaries laboriously transcribe who seconded a motion, and remind the chair to ask for votes to approve minutes or to adjourn—none of which is required in the rulebook, but all of which feel official.
My bemusement with such niceties began early. This is an actual excerpt from a 1975 Boy Scout organization newsletter, showing my formidable prowess at a tender age:
“I move that we move the table over there.”—Dean Walters [18 years old]
“I move we table the motion to move the table.”—Robert James [17 years old]
I belatedly decided to wade into the authorities, to see what all the fuss is about. The following informal guide is based on the 816‐page (!) Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised Twelfth Edition (2020), Robert’s Rules of Order Newly Revised In Brief (3d ed. 2020), and Slaughter et al., Notes and Comments on Robert’s Rules (4th ed. 2012) (where citations to most materials I reference here can be found). It is obviously only a summary, and I am obviously not a parliamentarian—just a present, past and future member, officer and president of several nonprofit organizations. Organizations that rarely, but occasionally, have referred to parliamentary procedure in their bylaws and deliberations.
BACKGROUND
Parliamentary procedure is a subject as old as the deliberative body, stretching back to ancient Greece, and the principles we use developed in the English Parliament. Rules adopted by the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives carried over to other legislative bodies. A U.S. military officer of French Huguenot descent, Henry M. Robert, faced with running unruly San Francisco gatherings, further customized the rules outside the government context and as General Robert published his first version in 1876.
The Association of International Parliamentarians (AIP) is separate from the heirs of General Robert, who maintain the “official version” of the good soldier’s original rules to this day. The professional parliamentarians are not especially in love with Robert’s in any of its iterations—see Hellman, “Robert’s Precedence is Nonsense” (1971) or Phifer, “The Robert Heirs Blew It” (1982)—but Robert’s is still said (by those who must know) to be used in “91+%” of organizations that go to the trouble of specifying rules of order. Other books with other rules of order may be clearer and more concise, but they are rarely specified. Thus, Robert’s is the most secure authority when there is a dispute, which after all is the only time that the rules really matter. So I think it is best to plunge into the belly of the beast.
Organizations may have bylaws or standing resolutions that change the rules on such topics as the necessary number of attendees or “quorum,” the process that must be followed before a motion may be made, and the like. So before piping up on the subject, look at the authorities to see if they supersede any of these background principles.
PRINCIPLES OF ROBERTSWORLD
My eyes always glazed over when looking at the dense Robert’s Rules charts of motions—like that in my Appendix—with seemingly random priorities, seconding requirements, passmark levels, debate rules, and the like. When I finally read the books, I discovered that there are a small number of general principles that help make sense of the system. I refer to General Robert’s regime as Robertsworld to distinguish it as needed from our own planet.
1. In Robertsworld, meetings consist of virtually nothing but reports and motions. The meeting comes to order on finding of a quorum, then minutes are confirmed, then there is “unfinished business” (not “old” business, that’s surprisingly not in Robert’s) of reports and motions, then there is “new business” of more reports and motions, then the meeting adjourns, and then you go home.
2. In Robertsworld, all discussions proceed after the making of a specific motion, not in open forum before a motion is made.
Robertsworld dislikes bull sessions with discussion in the absence of a particular motion before the assembly. In Robertsworld you do not take “straw votes” to “test the waters” for a motion, or conduct an “opinion poll” among several alternative proposals. Every discussion is centered upon one and only one motion; every vote is for real and for keeps, on one and only one motion. Here is view from Planet Robert:
A motion to take an informal straw poll to “test the waters” is not in order because it neither adopts nor rejects a measure and hence is meaningless and dilatory. (45:72)
Meaningless and dilatory! Pretty strong words. (There are ways to use the Robertsworld system to achieve something akin to an open forum, like a motion to constitute a Committee of the Whole dispensing with some formalities, or a motion to Postpone Consideration of a Motion that effectively tests the waters. See below.)
3. In Robertsworld, there is a victorious majority and a happy submissive loser who abides by and supports the outcome. Listen to General Robert himself:
The great lesson for democracies to learn is for the majority to give to the minority a full, free opportunity to present their side of the case, and then for the minority, having failed to win a majority to their views, gracefully to submit and to recognize the action as that of the entire organization, and cheerfully to assist in carrying it out, until they can secure its repeal.—Henry M. Robert, Parliamentary Law (1923).
Does that sounds like any nonprofit organization in which you participate? Me neither.
Breaking Robert’s Rules (2006), by Lawrence Susskind and Jeffrey Cruikshank, has an effective critique of Robertsworld. As those authors stress, volunteer organizations seldom function with an amnesiac losing side. A disgruntled minority looks for ways to re‐fight the battle, to organize opposition, maybe even to sue, or worst of all for a nonprofit, simply to opt out. We need the continued engagement of our losing minorities. We need those in opposition to a particular motion to keep participating, and we need to avoid having them passive‐aggressively (or active‐aggressively) impair the long‐term success of our group. (Compare Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice and Loyalty (1970).)
Finding a consensus solution that minimizes minority alienation is one of the key objectives in nonprofits I have led. Contrary to Robertsworld, my own experience is that a topic is usually introduced not by a motion but by comments by an officer or committee member. A discussion ensues with different possible actions tossed around. Eventually, whether because a consensus is apparent or because time for that agenda item has long run out, there is a motion. Sometimes there is need for further consideration on that motion; other times we will have guessed right and the motion passes without further fanfare.
That is not to say that discussions cannot go around in circles without solid outcomes if they are not properly managed. The good nonprofit chair will try to finish each agenda item with either a motion or a clear action plan for one. But let us be clear: this manner of operating in open forum is not Robertsworld; it is inconsistent with the rules called for by the good general that restrict discussion to a motion that has already been made.
4. The assembly should consider only one thing at a time. By contrast, this principle of Robertsworld is a universally worthy one. In Robertsworld, this technically means consideration of one motion at a time. But there are motions and then there are motions. Some motions relate to the conduct of the assembly and meeting overall (“I can’t hear the speaker!” or “Let’s adjourn or recess!”); some are dispositive, in that they would suspend or terminate debate on a given motion (“Let’s vote!” or “Let’s refer this to the X Committee!”); and some address an aspect of the way in which the motion is being debated (“Let’s break the motion into two parts!” or “I’ve got a factual question!”).
The Robertsworld system allows such motions to be heard using a complex (some say over‐complex) “order of precedence” (cognoscenti pronounce that “pre-CEED-ence,” by the way). As shown below, a motion is “in order” only if it has higher priority than the existing motions before the assembly; and that high‐priority motion is debated until it is EITHER disposed of (voted on) OR overlaid by a new motion of higher priority, at which time that higher‐priority motion is the only one in the arena—it is the one exclusively to be seconded, debated (as permitted) and voted on. This last‐in‐first‐out (LIFO) approach can lead to huge stack‐ups of motions of ranked priorities, like planes circling an airport. See Demeter, “Twenty‐Six Subsidiary Motions Pending At Once” (2011) (and even more than 26 are possible). Complex as this hierarchy may be, it insures that everything is discussed in a pre‐ordained order such that by the time the underlying main motion is voted on, the subject of that motion is over and done with rather than being vulnerable to re‐opening.
5. There is Robertsworld logic for the rules on seconding and debatability of motions.
a. Seconds are required to evidence that more than one member supports a motion. That means if support by multiple members is already clear, or if a motion relates to a right held by each and every individual member, then no second is needed. There is no need for seconds to motions introduced by a multiple-member committee like a nominating committee. At the other extreme, since the rules of order and the organization meeting’s agenda are pre‐ordained, they are rights of each member; any one of us is entitled to enforce them without need of support by others. So motions that enforce the rules and the agenda don’t require a second. Those include Question of Privilege, Call for Orders (Agenda) to be Followed, Point of Order, Count the Vote (Division of Assembly), Parliamentary Inquiry and Request for Information. Withdrawing your own motion already seconded, and objecting immediately to consideration of a motion, also don’t take a second, since two people have already shown interest.
b. There is no need or requirement to debate decisions that will be decided only by the chair. This seemingly small point—that certain motions don’t require a second or debate because they realize individual rights—explains much of the complexity of the Robertsworld motion tables. Motions that are handled exclusively by the chair of the meeting require no debate—including Question of Privilege, Call for Orders (Agenda) to be Followed, Point of Order, Count the Vote (Divide the Assembly), Parliamentary Inquiry, and Request for Information.
c. There is no need or requirement to debate decisions that will not be illuminated by debate. Up‐or‐down motions on whether to debate are similarly voted on without debate. Just vote yea or nay, for heaven’s sake. Those include Adjourn, Recess, Lay on the Table, Close Debate 2/3, Limit Debate 2/3, Take From the Table, Suspend the Rules 2/3, Object to Consideration, Divide the Question, and Withdraw My Motion.
6. In Robertsworld, a supermajority is needed to end or limit debate, or to suspend or change rules. “Simple minorities” (not a pejorative, just meaning “slightly under 50% minorities”) should not be steamrollered into ending debate or suspending the organization’s rules for any period. Such actions therefore requires a greater proportion of consensus. So Close Debate 2/3, Close/Reopen Nominations 2/3, Close/Reopen Polls 2/.3, Limit Debate 2/3 and Suspend Rules 2/3 all require a two‐thirds majority.
7. Robertsworld hates traveling backward in time. Something extra, something beyond a majority vote, is needed to undo or redo something the assembly already passed—a supermajority, advance notice of the revision, or consent of most of the registered membership. Thus, to Rescind anything takes a 2/3 vote (there is an exception whereby majority suffices for rescission, if prior notice of the rescission motion is provided, or if ayes are obtained from a majority of the entire registered membership rather than just those attending a given meeting). To Reconsider is a majority vote, not a 2/3 one, but that motion can only be used by the end of the next meeting day, and can only be made by someone who voted FOR the motion before (anybody can second). To Discharge a motion from a committee also takes a 2/3 vote.
8. Robertsworld hates retreading ground that has already been trod. No ordinary motion may be introduced on the same subject as covered in a motion that was rejected in this session of meetings, or that was adopted at any prior time (in the latter case, a Rescind motion is needed with its supermajority or notice protections). In practice, on our planet, we have all seen retreading of ground outside of Robertsworld. Nothing prevents a motion to do something inconsistent with a prior meeting, but I agree that in general retrograde motion is to be avoided.
MEETINGS
A regular meeting is held on the scheduled date. A special meeting is held by notice given in accordance with the bylaws.
The chair of the meeting calls the meeting to order, ascertains and announces the presence of a quorum, makes any needed introductions, and confirms the agenda or any changes to it. Usually the chair requests any corrections to the draft minutes that were distributed; after corrections the chair can declare them approved as circulated (and corrected). Every organization I have been part of has laboriously asked for a motion and a second to approve the minutes, and a vote, and an announcement of the results of the vote. None of that is required in Robert’s; it just makes us sense that we are doing something fancy! No, all a chair need do is say “The minutes have been distributed. Are there any corrections? … If there are no further corrections, the minutes are approved as [distributed/corrected].” That is a direct quotation from the Robert’s books. No motion, no second, no vote.
In large organizations (over 12 members) the chair is supposed to be impartial, not engaging in debate, and voting only if his or her vote is needed to break a tie for majority matters (or to make or break a two-thirds majority for supermajority matters). But a chair is often the organization’s president and expected to be and be seen as a leader. We chose that president for his or her passion and vision, charisma and ethos, not for their skills as a neutral moderator of a meeting.
Here is another reason why an open-forum discussion is helpful. To accomplish both the open forum and the freer chair role in Robertsworld, a motion can be made to commit the matter to the Committee of the Whole, and at the same time appoint someone else to serve as chair of that committee. Then the organization chair can debate and vote until the cows come home. On dissolution of the Committee of the Whole, motion in hand, the organization chair resumes being chair of the meeting. (I mentioned this strategy to four friends with a cumulative 150 years of nonprofit experience and not one of them had heard of a “committee of the whole.”)
If a consent calendar with attachments was distributed, the chair refers to each such item and then (hearing no objection) a single motion, seconded and carried, approves any recommendations in those reports or motions. If there are live reports of officers or committees, each of them is separately heard. The auditor’s report (which often embeds action items) is approved by motion seconded and carried.
Ordinary reports of officers and committees, on the other hand, are not required to be “approved,” and any recommendations contained in them should be the subject of a separate motion that can be seconded (if not already in the committee’s own motion) and carried. This cleared up a confusion I had long possessed. Why are we asked to “approve” a financial report like a balance sheet and income statement? What else could we do? Here is the explanation—such a vote is not technically required, but it affords any member the opportunity to ask questions.
In the case of elections, nominations may be made within the report of the nominating committee or other body ahead of time; again, no second is needed (the committee evidences more than one voice and thus the purpose of a second has already been satisfied). New nominations at the meeting are often prohibited. Election of an officer is by majority vote, while election of members of a board or committee is by plurality vote. There is no entitlement to a secret ballot, but a motion to Count the Vote (Division of Assembly) is in order.
“Unfinished business” is the correct term, not “old business,” and it consists only of actual motions that were made but not disposed of at prior meetings. Some such items may be “special orders of the day” (to be handled with high priority at a specific time, save only pending motions for Adjournment, Recess or Question of Privilege) or “general orders of the day” (to be handled at a specific time, or as soon thereafter as other business and any special orders are concluded).
Everything else is “new business.” At the conclusion of new business, the chair may ask whether there is objection to adjournment; hearing none, the chair may declare the meeting adjourned. The lack of objection takes the place of a motion, and a motion with a second, or a vote, or an announcement of the results of the vote—none of that frippery is required in Robert’s. Alternatively, though, a member may move to adjourn (without interrupting anyone); that motion does require a second and a vote, and on second and carry the meeting is adjourned.
MOTIONS
Brace yourself, here are the motions. They are much easier to understand if you internalize the principles stated above. For each, I have shorthanded whether in Robertsworld a second is required (2d), whether it is debatable, and whether it requires a majority or 2/3 vote or is acted upon by the chair instead.
Main motions freshly bringing business to the assembly 2d DEBATE MAJORITY (except change bylaws, suspend rules, or rescind)
A main motion is made by a member who has the floor (without making an interruption; in formal settings, ask chair to be recognized or to be given the floor) when no other question or motion is pending. An irony of Robertsworld is that a main motion, the actual reason why the organization is meeting, has the lowest of parliamentary priorities.
A main motion must be “in order,” i.e., must be consistent with the bylaws and articles and germane to the agenda of the meeting. The chair or any member (immediately with an Objection to Consideration or thereafter as a Point of Order) may object to an inappropriate motion. That is what is meant by the famous term of art “out of order.” A motion should not be the same as a motion previously rejected at the same session, or adopted at any time (except a valid motion to Rescind, or to Amend, an adopted motion).
The main motion (other than one reported out of committee) must be seconded (orally, without requesting the floor; not even recorded in minutes though everyone does that in practice). At this point the chair restates it, preferably as an affirmative rather than a negative (or worse yet, a double or triple negative, which I have seen). Longer motions can be written resolutions—but one should keep recitals short and noncontroversial.
The maker should address the chair only, and should not just say “I so move” after a bunch of discussion. The maker may correct the wording with the seconder’s consent or withdraw the motion until it is restated by the chair; at that point the motion belongs to the assembly not the maker, so he or she cannot amend his own motion without an amending motion duly made, seconded and carried.
Main motions are obviously debatable. The maker speaks first, then the chair seeks to alternate the microphone between opponents and proponents. Unless other rules apply, any member only has the right to speak twice, and for 10 minutes each time, in a debate.
After discussion ends, the chair asks if members are ready for the question, and then takes an oral vote (for majority passmark), a rising vote (for 2/3 passmark), or a division vote (count ayes and nays) to determine and announce whether the motion is carried. The chair should simply say “All those in favor, say aye,” “All those opposed, say nay,” and then (if he or she is confident of the voice vote) “The motion is carried/not carried.” If not confident he or she can say “It appears that the ayes have it,” and if there is no motion to Divide the Assembly or to Call for a Ballot the chair can announce the carry.
An “incidental main motion” (a confusing term) may include a motion to make something a special order or general order, a motion to “adopt” a committee report (but why should the organization be required to adopt every part of a report? Better to ask for a motion on specific recommendations instead), a motion to ratify acts already done by the assembly or an officer or agent, a motion to limit debates in general, a motion to recess or schedule a recess, or a motion to adjourn or fix the time to which to adjourn, made when no other business is pending.
Four motions returning business to the assembly
This quartet of incidental main motions brings back to the assembly questions that had been presented before. Normally you cannot bring the same question up after the subject has already been decided, or if a motion on that subject is pending. More is needed to rescind or reconsider than a mere desire to redo.
1. Take up from the table (a motion to resume considering unfinished business). 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY
2. Rescind or amend something already approved at any prior time, before or during the pending session or meeting. 2d DEBATE 2/3 (unless already distributed, or ayes by majority of organization’s whole membership)
3. Discharge a committee by returning a matter to the assembly, 2d DEBATE 2/3 (unless already distributed, or ayes by majority of organization’s whole membership)
4. Reconsider (only available in Robertsworld on the same or next day of the same session; motion must be made by someone who supported the carried motion, to evidence new information has caused someone to change, or at least possibly change, his or her mind). 2d (by anyone) DEBATE MAJORITY (even if underlying motion is a 2/3 matter)
Five privileged motions
This quintet of motions relates to the proper conduct of the overall meeting, and they suspend consideration of the main motion. They have priority in the following order, meaning that when one is pending, only the ones above it may be entertained.
1. Fix time to which to adjourn (not needed if to next regular meeting). 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY
2. Adjourn (privileged when moved during other business; an incidental main motion otherwise). 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY
3. Recess (intended to be used for a “short intermission,” for “specified length of time”; the chair should reject as dilatory if intended to delay or defeat business). 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY
4. Question of privilege (personal accommodation of member (e.g., temperature, volume), or rights of the assembly (e.g., confidential information)). NO 2d NO DEBATE CHAIR
5. Call for enforcement of special orders or general orders of the day (force agenda to be followed concerning unfinished business given special order or general order). No 2d NO DEBATE AUTOMATIC (not discretionary; takes a 2/3 vote to overturn special order or general order)
Seven subsidiary motions
This septet of motions is directed at suspending or terminating consideration of another pending motion. They are all subordinate to privileged motions, but likewise suspend consideration of the main motion. They have priority among themselves in the following order.
1. Lay on the table (temporarily for an “immediate” “urgent” reason, e.g., departure or arrival of speaker; the chair should reject as dilatory if intended to prevent consideration of a motion); no debate; majority can decide to take back up from the table. 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY Warning! Chairs should be especially alert to abuse of this motion in situations other than a truly temporary urgency, because an indefinite postponement can be used to choke off discussion of the main motion without substantive discussion.
2. Close debate (also called “move the previous question” or “call the question”). 2d NO DEBATE 2/3
3. Limit or extend limits of debate. 2d NO DEBATE 2/3
4. Postpone to a certain time but not later than the end of the next regular meeting, if the assembly meets at least quarterly. 2d DEBATE re time MAJORITY to create general order, 2/3 to create special order
5. Refer to a committee. One option is a motion to go into a Committee of the Whole (to allow chair freely to enter debate and vote, to avoid public notice, to excuse non‐members, and to facilitate informal and unreported testing of positions). 2d DEBATE re commitment, not the substance MAJORITY
6. Amend, at which point the amendment motion becomes a mini‐main motion eligible for other motions, including a motion to amend the amendment; deal with them in the reverse order of proposal, LIFO. Amendments to amendments OK, but no further. Priority depends on what motion is being amended. Robertsworld says amendments should use the terminology of “strike” this and “replace” that, not a restatement that leaves assembly to figure out what changed; I think a “redlined” version is more courteous to show both the entire motion and what is proposed to be changed. 2d DEBATE MAJORITY (even if underlying motion is a 2/3 matter)
7. Postpone indefinitely (equivalent to a rejection if it passes). If it fails, it cannot be reconsidered; opponents can move on to trying amendment or other options. Also used to back the assembly out of a badly chosen main motion (e.g., don’t want to vote against giving someone an honor). Also used to give people who have already spoken for 10 minutes or spoken twice a chance to speak again. So this is a strategic weapon—not one you would see outside of Robertsworld, but it makes perfect sense inside Robertsworld. I can’t wait to try it out some time. 2d DEBATE MAJORITY
Many incidental subsidiary motions
These motions relate to the manner in which the assembly and chair are hearing the pending motion or motions in particular. Once again, they suspend consideration of the main motion. They do not have a fixed priority against other motions or against each other.
1. Point of order or procedure (interrupt). NO 2d NO DEBATE CHAIR
2. Appeal decision of chair (no interruption). 2d DEBATE MAJORITY (tie goes to chair’s ruling)
3. Suspend rules. 2d NO DEBATE 2/3 if suspension is legal
4. Object to consideration of motion (only immediately, before debate begins). No 2d NO DEBATE 2/3
5. Division of question into parts or by paragraph or seriatim. 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY
6. Division of assembly (i.e., object to relying on an oral vote, require a show of hands or the like). No 2d NO DEBATE AUTOMATIC for rising vote
7. Ballot or roll call or counted standing vote, close or reopen polls. 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY except 2/3 to close or reopen polls
8. Nominations, when nominations from the floor are permitted. How to nominate, to close or reopen nominations. 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY except 2/3 to close or reopen nominations
9. Requests (parliamentary inquiry, point of information No 2d NO DEBATE CHAIR); (leave to withdraw a motion 2d NO DEBATE MAJORITY)
Order of dealing with motions
1. Privileged Motions in order (fix time to which to adjourn, adjourn, take recess, question of privilege, enforce special or general orders of the day); then
2. Subsidiary Motions in order (lay on table urgently, call for previous question/close debate, limit/extend debate, postpone to definite time, refer, amend, postpone indefinitely); then
3. Incidental Subsidiary Motions as appropriate; priority within #1 and #2 and with each other varies (point of order, appeal, suspend rules, object to consideration, division of question, division of assembly, nominations, miscellaneous);
then (drumroll)
4. Main Motion (at last!). “Hey, remember me?”
###
Again, I do not profess to be an expert on these rules, just a layperson who finally slogged through the texts with the weight of experience of service in nonprofit organizations. I respectfully disagree with some aspects of Robertsworld, especially having to begin any discussion with the making of a main motion. I would rather see the first motion deferred for a reasonable time period, to see if a consensus emerges for a successful motion. If I am forced to live in Robertsworld, I would regularly elicit a motion to commit to a Committee of the Whole—to reach consensus and to allow the organization’s leader to be an inspirational leader, not just a moderator. Other aspects of Robertsworld, like what takes a second, what is and isn’t debatable or amendable, and what takes a majority or supermajority vote or a chair decision, are very sound in almost all facets of nonprofit deliberation.
A handy chart summarizing the motions is attached. I had stared at similar charts in the past, blankly, like a dog watching television—I knew something was happening, but I didn’t know what. Now I look at such tables with fresh eyes. I hope they now make more sense to the reader of these Robert’s Robert’s Rules Rules!
APPENDIX OF MOTIONS IN PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE
